Freeze-Thaw Resistance of 3D Printed Concrete (2026-03)¶

The distinctive ellipsoidal pores and weak interlayer interfaces of 3D printed concrete result in a significantly different Freeze-thaw damage pattern compared to traditional conventionally cast concrete. This review is organized around four themes: mechanisms, influencing factors, modification strategies, and damage models. At the mechanistic level, synthesizing the hydraulic-pressure, osmotic-pressure, and micro-ice-lens theory, we highlight that anisotropic pores within printed filaments, together with interlayer-interface connectivity, govern the divergent evolution of water migration, frost heave, and crack-propagation pathways. Regarding influencing factors, we examine how printing parameters, material composition, and coupled environmental actions regulate Freeze-thaw performance. For modeling and service-life prediction, we systematize existing Freeze-thaw damage models and life-estimation frameworks. Nevertheless, the current literature on the Freeze-thaw durability of 3D printed concrete remains limited: most studies analyze single variables, and mature 3D printed concrete-specific Freeze-thaw damage models are still lacking. Future work should address the limitations of existing models and advance rigorously coupled multi-factor analyses, thereby providing more reliable theoretical foundations and practical guidance for durability-oriented design, experimental evaluation, and service-life prediction of 3D printed concrete in cold-region applications.