Establishing Benchmark Properties for 3D-Printed Concrete (2025-02)¶

This study investigates the fresh state and hardened state mechanical and durability properties of 3D-printed concrete. The mechanical tests focused on its anisotropic behavior in response to different load orientations. Compressive, flexural, and splitting tensile strengths were evaluated relative to the print layers orientation. Results showed that compressive strength varied significantly, achieving 85% of cast sample strength when the load was applied parallel to the print layers ([u] direction), 71% when the load was applied perpendicular to the print object’s side plane ([v] direction), while only reaching 59% when applied perpendicular to the top plane ([w] direction). Similar trends were observed for flexural strength, with average values reaching 75% of cast sample strength when the load was applied perpendicular to the print layers ([v.u] and [w.u] directions), but decreasing to 53% when the load was applied parallel to print layers ([u.w] direction), underscoring the weaknesses at interlayer interfaces. The splitting tensile strength remained relatively consistent across print orientations, reaching 90% of the cast sample strength. Durability assessment tests revealed that 3D-printed concrete exhibits reduced resistance to environmental factors, particularly at the layer interfaces where the cold joint was formed, which are prone to moisture penetration and crack formation. These findings contribute valuable insights into the mechanical and durability properties of 3D-printed concrete, emphasizing the importance of print orientation and interlayer bonding in its performance. This understanding helps guide the optimal use of 3D-printed elements in real-life applications by aligning load or exposure to environmental factors with the material’s strength and durability characteristics.