Effects of Aggregate Size and Nozzle Diameter on Printability and Mechanical Properties of 3D Printed Ferronickel Slag-GGBFS Concrete (2025-08)¶

Ferronickel slag and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) are solid waste by-products from the metallurgical industry. When incorporated into concrete, they help promote resource utilization, reduce hydration heat, and lower both solid waste emissions and the carbon footprint. To facilitate the application of ferronickel slag–GGBFS concrete in 3D printing, this study examines how aggregate size and nozzle diameter affect its performance. The investigation involves in situ printing, rheological characterization, mechanical testing, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. Results indicate that excessively large average aggregate size negatively impacts the smooth extrusion of concrete strips, resulting in a cross-sectional width that exceeds the preset dimension. Excessively small average aggregate size results in insufficient yield stress, leading to a narrow cross-section of the extruded strip that fails to meet printing specifications. The extrusion performance is closely related to both the average aggregate size and nozzle diameter, which can significantly influence the normal extrusion stability and print quality of 3D printed concrete strips. The thixotropic performance improves with an increase in the aggregate size. Both compressive and flexural strengths improve with increasing aggregate size but decrease with an increase in the printing nozzle size. Anisotropy in mechanical behavior decreases progressively as both parameters mentioned increase. By examining the cracks and pores at the interlayer interface, this study elucidates the influence mechanism of aggregate size as well as printing nozzle parameters on the mechanical properties of 3D printed ferronickel slag–GGBFS concrete. This study also recommends the following ranges. When the maximum aggregate size exceeds 50% of the nozzle diameter, smooth extrusion is not achievable. If it falls between 30% and 50%, extrusion is possible but shaping remains unstable. When it is below 30%, both stable extrusion and good shaping can be achieved.