From 3D to 5D Printing (2024-11)¶

3D printing (3DP) allows the construction industry to create intricate structures and components in less time and at a lower cost. The addition of a fourth dimension to the printing process enables the development of new functions and responsiveness to 3D-printed objects. Functional cement-based materials are designed to exhibit dynamic properties that enable them to act as sensors, self-clean, or self-repair in what is known as four-dimensional printing, or 4DP. However, adding functionalities to materials introduces a new layer of complexity to the development of printable compositions. 5D printing, also known as 5DP, is an extension of 4D printing that incorporates a fifth dimension, which is machine learning (ML), into the process. ML offers opportunities to optimise the printing process but also to assist in the discovery and optimisation of cement-based materials. It makes it possible to optimise functional materials in order to achieve a specific desired outcome, which is, in this case, an extra functionality. We present the most recent advances in the field of 4DP and 5DP functional construction materials and discuss the challenges that need to be addressed. We analyse the opportunities for combining machine learning and 3D printing in the development of functional cement-based materials.