Human-Robot Collaboration in Digital Fabrication with Concrete (2026-01)¶

Construction 5.0 advocates human–machine collaboration. Therefore, understanding the human response is crucial for design and scaling up these processes. To date, however, there is no agreed set of methodologies, which would allow quantifying the human effort in the setting of digital construction, nor allow for comparison with traditional construction processes. To close this gap, the current paper presents an experimental consideration of the physiological, biomechanical, and subjective response of human actors, conjoint with productivity of collaborative digital fabrication during Shotcrete 3D Printing (SC3DP), and compares it against the traditional cast reinforced concrete element execution. Several parameters were measured simultaneously during each of the two production processes to quantify the psychophysiological relief experienced by workers. In the SC3DP collaborative process, the following mean values were observed relative to the manual cast concrete process: carried weight – 44%, covered distance – 37%, uncomfortable spine position – 60%, perceived exertion, and demands on the Borg and Nasa Task Load Index (TLX) scales – 63%. Meanwhile, NASA-TLX perceived performance increased by 21%, accompanied by an almost threefold rise in the measured task-level productivity. Interestingly, objective physiological indicators, i.e., heart rate and blood lactate concentration, remained unchanged between the two processes. Another important finding is the high mental demand of the operator of the robotic system. Finally, this paper underlines the need for further development of methods for measuring and assessing construction workers’ psychophysical state, which should be regarded among the key productivity factors, supporting the introduction of digital construction methods in accordance with Industry 5.0 principles.