A Systematic Review on the Durability of 3D-Printed Cementitious Materials (2026-01)¶

This study provides a historical overview of 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) technology and a systematic review of its durability research. Employing the PRISMA methodology, the review analysed 282 articles from SCOPUS, Web of Science, and Springer. The review identifies the number of studies published in the last decade, the most frequently investigated pathologies, and the main techniques and outcome parameters assessed. Despite a significant increase in publications, durability remains an underexplored domain within 3DCP. Most studies focus on chloride ingress and carbonation, with limited attention to other degradation mechanisms such as sulphate attack, acid exposure, and freeze–thaw cycles. Few publications consider the interaction between different degradation processes, such as combined carbonation and chloride ingress, highlighting a critical research gap. Experimental procedures exhibit considerable variability, including test directionality, specimen age, CO2 concentration, and measurement techniques. The orthotropic nature of 3DCP is often neglected, with most studies assessing durability in only one or two directions. Long-term assessments are rare, with most tests limited to early ages between 28 and 60 days. Inconsistencies in standards and incomplete reporting hinder reproducibility and comparability. Future research should prioritize the study of coupled deterioration mechanisms and strive for greater transparency in test procedures to establish reliable durability benchmarks for 3DCP and ensure its successful implementation in structural applications.